04/2025 – Machiavelli nell’Italia dell’Ottocento: usi politici e riletture critiche

Abstracts

Alessandro Campi, The Religious Tradition and Political Change: The History of Italy as a Redemption and Rebirth

The article examines the enduring interplay between religious tradition and political identity in Italian history, interpreting the Renaissance and the Risorgimento as symbolic narratives of collective rebirth. It argues that Christian notions of redemption, sacrifice, and resurrection have profoundly shaped Italian historical imagination and political discourse: from artistic humanism to national unification, fascist ideology, and later movements invoking moral and civic renewal. It is the paradigm of history as regeneration and renewal, not as revolution: rebirth appears not as a rupture but as a remembrance, revealing a culture perpetually striving for collective redemption and the rediscovery of its authentic origins.

Keywords: Rinascimento; Risorgimento; Redemption; National rebirth; Symbolism; Religious tradition; Political identity.

 

Luigi Marco Bassani, Liberals and Conservatives: The American Labyrinth

The essay examines the complex semantic and political evolution of the terms liberal and conservative in the United States, highlighting their deep divergence from European usage. Beginning with the transformations initiated by John Stuart Mill and the English New Liberalism, and later influenced by Dewey and Keynes, American liberalism gradually shifted from nineteenth-century laissez-faire toward state interventionism and the social policies of the New Deal. In parallel, figures such as Barry Goldwater redefined conservatism in an American context, merging it with classical liberalism and opposing it to progressive liberalism. The essay shows how, from the twentieth century to the present, American political vocabulary has been the site of constant ideological contestation, culminating in today’s tensions between progressive democrats and conservative populists.

Keywords: Liberal; Conservative; Cold War; New Liberalism; New Deal; Right; Political identity.

 

Fabio Fossati, Language is a Virus? Which Political Science definitions for Radical Left and Right:  Populism, Xenophobia, Plebiscitarianism, Sovereignism?

Populism can be defined as: a Manichean ideology with a binary cosmology of the world; the expansion of public expenditure with damaging effects on the economy; charismatic leaders making plebiscitary appeals to the population, with a limited role of intermediate actors (parties) and institutions (parliament); a high mobilization process from above leading to a movimientismo of the lower sectors of the population. The cases of orthodox populism were: Peron in Argentina, Allende in Chile, Garcia in Peru, and Chavez-Maduro in Venezuela. In heterodox populism (Syriza, Movimento 5 Stelle, Correa, Morales, Cristina Kirchner…), the increase of the public expenditure and the inflation rate remains under control. The parties of the radical right are not populist, because there is not the increase of public expenditure. But charismatic leaders like Trump and Orban make plebiscitary appeals to the population. The most correct definition for radical right is that of xenophobic (and plebiscitarian) parties.

Keywords: Populism; Plebiscitarianism; Latin America; Xenophobia; Manicheanism.

 

Christian Savès, The Leopard against Marx: Toward a Theory of the Socio-Historical Status Quo

This article proposes a theoretical reinterpretation of The Leopard (Il Gattopardo) by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa as a critique of teleological conceptions of history, particularly those associated with Marxist theories of social transformation. While Marxism conceives history as a dynamic process driven by structural contradictions and oriented toward radical change, The Leopard offers a markedly different perspective, emphasizing the resilience of social hierarchies, the continuity of power relations, and the adaptive capacity of ruling elites. Through an analysis of the novel’s political and anthropological dimensions, the article argues that Lampedusa develops an implicit theory of the socio-historical status quo, according to which change often serves as a mechanism for preserving existing structures rather than overturning them. The famous dictum that “everything must change so that everything can remain the same” is interpreted not merely as a cynical observation on the Italian Risorgimento, but as a broader reflection on the logic of historical continuity. By contrasting Lampedusa’s vision with the Marxian understanding of historical development, the article highlights two competing paradigms of social change: one centered on transformation and emancipation, the other on adaptation and persistence. Ultimately, The Leopard emerges as a significant contribution to a conservative theory of history, offering insights into the enduring relationship between political change and social stability.

Keywords: The Leopard; Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa; Karl Marx; Historical change; Statu quo; Political theory; Conservatism; Risorgimento; Social continuity; Elites.

 

Cristina Baldassini, Democratic Expectations and Hopes after the End of the Cold War

With the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and the end of the Cold War, there was great expectation amongst Western democracies that liberal democracy would spread throghout the former Eastern Bloc. Francis Fukuyama proclaimed the “End of History” and there was much talk of a “New Liberal International Order”; the most optimistic scholars thought it possible that democracy could reach certain countries for the first time. This article initially focuses on the expectations and hopes for democracy that developed in the 1990s; secondly, it explores the extent to which this optimism has remained almost completely unfulfilled more than thirty years later. Finally, it ponders whether a form of “nostalgia” for those dreams of democracy endures, especially in times like the present with democracy under threat or in crisis.

Keywords: Democracy; Cold War; Nostalgia; Political Order; History.

 

 

Luciani Mencacci, Zohran Mamdani’s Social Democracy and the Future of the Democratic Party between Political Opportunities and Risks

In the world’s financial capital, Zohran Mamdani, a young democratic socialist, orchestrated a triumphant electoral campaign that propelled him to the mayoralty, riding a wave of popular discontent against a self-referential elite deaf to the needs of the most vulnerable segments of the population and the younger generations. His victory marks an extremely significant moment in the history of a Democratic Party still disoriented by Donald Trump’s political exuberance and, above all, struggling to forge a responsive and unifying political identity. This essay seeks to analyse the impact that Mamdani’s socialist platform may have on the party’s internal debate: whether it represents the response the Democratic Party is seeking to its representational challenges, or whether it instead embodies a divisive argument that could drastically undermine its electoral prospects not only in the 2026 midterm elections but also in the 2028 presidential race.

Keywords: Social Democracy; Democratic Party; Zohran Mamdani; Donald Trump.

 

Stefano Bruno Galli, Gaetano Mosca and Niccolò Machiavelli: Between Ferrari and Oriani

Nineteenth-century Italian political thought developed not only influential interpretations of Niccolò Machiavelli but also a significant tradition of criticism directed against him. One of the foremost representatives of this critical current was Giuseppe Ferrari, whose arguments were later taken up by Alfredo Oriani and further elaborated by Gaetano Mosca. This article examines the intellectual connections linking these three authors and reconstructs the development of an alternative reading of Machiavelli that challenged his reputation as the founder of modern political science and the paradigmatic theorist of political realism. According to Ferrari, Oriani, and Mosca, the author of The Prince should be regarded less as a rigorous analyst of political realities than as a writer of often generic prescriptions, whose judgments were deeply shaped by the political passions and contingencies of his age. Rather than embodying the detached and disenchanted realism traditionally attributed to him, Machiavelli emerges in their writings as an ideologically engaged thinker, actively involved in the struggles of Renaissance Italy. Through a comparative analysis of their interpretations, the article highlights the persistence of an anti-Machiavellian strand within modern Italian political culture and explores its implications for the understanding of realism, political science, and historical judgment. In doing so, it sheds new light on the contested legacy of Machiavelli and on the broader debate concerning the relationship between political theory and political commitment.

Keywords: Gaetano Mosca; Niccolò Machiavelli; Giuseppe Ferrari; Alfredo Oriani; Political realism; Italian political thought; Anti-Machiavellianism; History of political ideas; Political science; Nineteenth-century Italy.

 

Maurizio Tarantino, “Learned but Not Acute”: Oreste Tommasini’s “Book” and Some of Its Critics

Oreste Tommasini’s monumental biography of Niccolò Machiavelli, published between 1883 and 1912, remains one of the foundational works of modern Machiavelli scholarship. Although frequently criticized for its methodological assumptions and interpretative limitations—notably by Benedetto Croce—it continues to be regarded as an extraordinary achievement in historical erudition, philological rigor, archival research, and documentary reconstruction. This article revisits both the figure of Tommasini and the scholarly reception of his major work, examining the assessments advanced by contemporaries and later critics. Moving beyond purely historiographical considerations, the essay explores the intellectual profile of a scholar who has yet to receive a comprehensive biographical treatment, despite the richness of his correspondence and his significant role within the cultural milieu of post-Risorgimento Italy. Particular attention is devoted to the tension between Tommasini’s vast documentary expertise and the recurrent criticism that his scholarship lacked interpretative sharpness—a judgment encapsulated in the description of him as “learned but not acute.” By situating Tommasini within the broader development of Italian historical and political studies, the article evaluates the extent to which his reconstruction of Machiavelli’s life and thought shaped subsequent scholarship. In doing so, it offers a reflection on the relationship between archival erudition, historical interpretation, and the making of intellectual authority in modern Italian historiography.

Keywords: Oreste Tommasini; Niccolò Machiavelli; Historiography; Benedetto Croce; Reception history; Italian intellectual history; Philology; Archival research; Post-Risorgimento Italy; Historical methodology.

Stefano De Luca, “That Divine Genius of Ours”: Machiavelli in Alfieri’s Political Thought

The presence of Niccolò Machiavelli in Vittorio Alfieri’s political and literary production is both pervasive and enduring, yet it unfolds across different levels that deserve to be examined separately. This article explores the multiple dimensions of Alfieri’s engagement with Machiavelli, highlighting the complexity and originality of his appropriation of the Florentine thinker. A first level concerns language and style: Alfieri consciously reworks Machiavelli’s expressive forms, vocabulary, and rhetorical strategies, incorporating them into his own literary and political discourse. A second level involves substantive political ideas, particularly the republican themes that Alfieri identified in Machiavelli’s writings and adapted to his own reflections on liberty, tyranny, and civic virtue. Finally, a third level relates to the image of Machiavelli as a prophet of national unity, an interpretation that would become especially influential during the Risorgimento and that Alfieri helped to anticipate through his patriotic reading of the author of The Prince. By analyzing these interconnected dimensions, the article argues that Alfieri played a crucial role in the modern rediscovery of Machiavelli, transforming him into both a political interlocutor and a symbolic figure within the emerging discourse of Italian nationhood. The study thus sheds light on a significant chapter in the history of Machiavelli’s reception and on the relationship between republicanism, patriotism, and political culture in late eighteenth-century Italy.

Keywords: Vittorio Alfieri; Niccolò Machiavelli; Republicanism; Political thought; Liberty; Tyranny; Risorgimento; Italian nationalism; Reception history; Eighteenth-century Italy.

 

Antonio Salvatore Romano, The Anti-Machiavellianism of La Civiltà Cattolica in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century

An important chapter in the nineteenth-century reception of Niccolò Machiavelli is represented by the interpretation advanced by Catholic intellectuals, particularly during the late Risorgimento period, and especially by the contributors to La Civiltà Cattolica, the Jesuit review founded in 1850. Their anti-Machiavellianism was unequivocal, yet it manifested itself in different forms and for different purposes. This article examines the Jesuit critique of Machiavelli, arguing that it can be divided into at least three distinct strands: a polemical and denigratory anti-Machiavellianism, aimed at discrediting Machiavelli as a corrupting influence on political morality; a political anti-Machiavellianism, directed against modern doctrines of statecraft associated with secularism and raison d’état; and an “identitarian” anti-Machiavellianism, through which Catholic thinkers sought to reaffirm the cultural and moral foundations of Catholic political thought in opposition to liberal and national movements. By analyzing articles and interventions published in La Civiltà Cattolica, the essay reconstructs the intellectual and ideological motivations underlying these different approaches and highlights their role in shaping the broader Catholic response to modernity. The study also shows how the Jesuit interpretation contributed to consolidating a critical image of Machiavelli that would continue to influence both Catholic and secular scholarship well into the twentieth century.

Keywords: Niccolò Machiavelli; La Civiltà Cattolica; Jesuits; Anti-Machiavellianism; Catholic political thought; Risorgimento; Nineteenth-century Italy; Political theology; Modernity; Reception history.

 

Giuseppe Scarpato, Liberalism and Machiavellian Realism in Luigi Blanch

Among the nineteenth-century Italian interpreters of Machiavelli, Luigi Blanch (1784–1872) occupies a distinctive position. His political and military writings, highly regarded by Benedetto Croce, consciously draw upon the categories of Machiavellian political realism and seek to rehabilitate the Florentine thinker as a foundational theorist of modern politics. This article examines Blanch’s interpretation of Machiavelli within the broader context of Italian liberal political thought, highlighting the intellectual influence exerted by Antonio Genovesi. By inaugurating a new tradition of civil philosophy centered on the concept of social utility, Genovesi had already challenged longstanding prejudices against Machiavelli, portraying him not as a teacher of tyranny but as a keen analyst of political realities. Building on this legacy, Blanch developed an original synthesis of liberal principles and political realism, emphasizing the autonomy of politics, the centrality of power, and the practical requirements of statecraft. Through an analysis of his political and military writings, the article argues that Blanch contributed significantly to the nineteenth-century rediscovery of Machiavelli and to the formation of a specifically Italian liberal realism. His work reveals how Machiavellian categories could be reconciled with constitutional and liberal aspirations, thereby offering an alternative perspective on the relationship between political necessity, public utility, and individual freedom.

Keywords: Luigi Blanch; Niccolò Machiavelli; Political realism; Liberalism; Antonio Genovesi; Civil philosophy; Italian political thought; Benedetto Croce; Statecraft; Nineteenth-century Italy.