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Abstracts

Michael Novak, Truth and Liberty. The Present Crisis in our Time

The author analyses the moral and cultural crisis in contemporary Western societies, arguing that the tragedies of the XX century were not only caused by ideologies such as fascism and communism, but primarily by nihilism and moral relativism. When freedom is understood as an unrestrained expression of individual will, divorced from truth and reason, it loses its foundation and becomes fragile. Novak distinguishes three conceptions of freedom: negative freedom (the absence of coercion); positive freedom (guaranteed by state intervention); and freedom as self-government, founded on the moral responsibility of the citizen. Democratic institutions cannot survive without civic virtues such as honesty, trust, and a sense of duty. The author further argues that the Judeo-Christian tradition has provided the cultural foundations for the recognition of human dignity and rights. Without reference to moral truth, and without citizens capable of self-control and responsibility, freedom risks degenerating into relativism or new forms of domination. Novak concludes that truth and freedom are mutually supportive and constitute the foundation of democratic life.

Keywords: Truth; Freedom; Democracy; Moral Relativism; Civic Virtue; Human Dignity

 

Flavio Felice, “Moral Ecology”, Freedom, and Democracy in Michael Novak’s Political Thought

This article analyses the ideas of American theologian and political scientist Michael Novak, emphasising his contribution to the dialogue between the Church’s social teachings, liberalism and democracy. Novak interprets a free society as being founded on three interdependent systems of freedom: political, economic and cultural. In works such as The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism, he asserts that market forces, democratic institutions, and cultural diversity can only flourish within a robust ethical and religious framework. Central to this concept is “moral ecology”, or the set of values, institutions, and traditions that underpin the freedoms of open societies. Influenced by classical liberalism, Austrian economics, and the Catholic tradition, Novak criticises both socialism and statism, emphasising the creative role of the individual and of entrepreneurship in human development. His ideas have helped to renew the relationship between Catholicism and the institutions of a free society by promoting a model of development that combines economic freedom, democracy, and moral responsibility.

Keywords: Michael Novak; Moral Ecology; Democratic Capitalism; Economic Freedom; Liberalism; Catholic Social Teaching

 

 

Frederic Sautet, Two or One? Michael Novak and the Foundations of the Pluralist Social Order

This article argues that Michael Novak’s analysis of democratic capitalism provides a compelling and forward-looking response to contemporary post-liberal critiques of the liberal order. Whereas post-liberal thinkers maintain that liberalism has failed because it has succeeded, Novak offers a framework grounded in pluralism and the centrality of conscience that constitutes a powerful counterargument. Yet his theory remains incomplete. By grounding the social order primarily in freedom of conscience and leaving the boundaries of the “empty sanctuary” at its core insufficiently defined, Novak does not fully articulate the deeper normative principles required to sustain a pluralist order. Rather than denying the need for a moral culture, his model presupposes it while rejecting its reduction to a politically imposed unity. The American constitutional tradition, rooted in natural law, provides the missing foundation for Novak’s pluralism and resolves the tension within his thought. A non-confessional pluralist political order, anchored in natural law, offers not merely a pragmatic compromise but a principled basis for a free and moral society in which religious truth may be proposed rather than imposed.

Keywords: Michael Novak; Democratic Capitalism; Post-Liberalism; Pluralism; Natural Law; Freedom of Conscience

 

Gianmarco Botti , “Popular Capitalism”: Michael Novak’ s Vision of an Economic System for the Poor

The essay identifies the problem of poverty as a central theme in Michael Novak’s political thought, as it directly engages the systemic idea he develops in The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism. This problem also calls into question Novak’s traditional position within American neoconservative circles and engages his broader reflections on the American continent, especially regarding the development of Latin America. Finally, it inspires the project, pursued until his final years, of constructing a new concept of social justice, in dialogue with the social doctrine of the Church.

Keywords: Poverty; Democratic Capitalism; Latin America; Social Justice; Michael Novak

 

Damiano Palano, Clausewitz in Paris. Raymond Aron and Michel Foucault at the Collège de France: a “hidden dialogue” between heterodox realists? 

This article examines a largely overlooked “hidden dialogue” between Raymond Aron and Michel Foucault, who arrived almost simultaneously at the Collège de France in 1970 and, in their courses of the early 1970s, both engaged – from radically opposed positions – with Clausewitz’s famous formula according to which war is the continuation of politics by other means. While Aron defended the formula against any inversion, insisting on the theoretical distinction between war and politics as the cornerstone of his heterodox realism, Foucault inverted it, arguing that politics should be understood as the continuation of war by other means. The article argues that, despite their fundamental disagreement, both thinkers can be situated within the broader tradition of political realism, though each represents a markedly unorthodox variant. Aron’s “historical-critical realism” rejects naturalistic and positivist anthropology, insisting on the irreducible role of legitimacy, ideology and moral reference in political life. Foucault develops what the article calls a “genealogical realism”, grounded in a “polemocritical” model in which war functions as an analytical grid for reading power relations, and critique itself operates as a form of antagonistic practice.

Keywords: Political realism; Claus von Clausewitz Raymond Aron Michel Foucault; Genealogy

 

Luca G. Castellin, The Achievable Ideal: John H. Herz and Realist Liberalism

This article reconstructs John H. Herz’s political thought by highlighting the coherence of his “realist liberalism” as an attempt to reconcile the realities of power politics with the ideals of freedom. Focusing on the security dilemma, the crisis of the territorial state, and the challenges of the nuclear age, it argues that Herz’s thought progressively evolved into a form of universalism grounded in the imperative of human survival. His work thus emerges as a remarkably relevant contribution to contemporary political theory and international relations.

Keywords: John H. Herz; Realist Liberalism; Security Dilemma; Political Realism; International Relations; Human Survival

 

Spartaco Pupo, The Origin and Genesis of the State in the Eighteenth Century: The Skeptical Anti-Contractualism of the Scottish Enlightenment

Studies on eighteenth-century political thought have largely overlooked the foundations of the Scottish doctrine of the state, namely that body of theories, historical-philosophical arguments, and moral reflections concerned with the phase preceding economic and political analysis, on which contemporary historiography has instead extensively focused. Within this specific field of inquiry, the Scottish Enlightenment distinguished itself from other European traditions by conceiving the state not as the product of a rationalistic fiction, such as the original contract, but as the outcome of an evolutionary process rooted in history, custom, war, and the gradual stabilization of authority. This article focuses on this intellectual stance, which is grounded in a broader perspective of political skepticism, within which the critique of social contract theory takes the form of a rejection of abstract rationalistic constructions. By examining Hume, Ferguson, Ramsay, and Smith, the article shows how the Scottish Enlightenment explained political authority through historical experience, military conflict, unintended social processes, and the ordinary motives of obedience rather than through an original act of consent.

Keywords: David Hume; Anti-Contractualism; Scottish Enlightenment; Social contract; Political skepticism

 

Alessandro Campi, A Forgotten Lesson: Emil Lederer’s Theory of Totalitarianism

This article reconstructs Emil Lederer’s original theory of totalitarianism, highlighting its innovative character in comparison with both liberal and Marxist interpretations. At the core of his analysis lies the concept of the “State of the Masses,” understood as a political order based on the destruction of pluralistic society and its transformation into an undifferentiated mass. The article also argues that Lederer’s thought remains highly relevant for understanding contemporary processes of social disintegration, the concentration of power, and the growing crisis of liberal democracy.

Keywords: Emil Lederer; Totalitarianism; Mass Society; Liberal Democracy; Political Sociology; Pluralism